Spoken Language - Conversation Analysis

When we are in a conversation, we look for certain signs which mean that it is our ‘turn’ to speak, these include:

·         Stressing the final word of an utterance

·         Dropping the volume level of their utterance

·         Asking a direct question of the listener

·         Using phrases such as ‘you know’ and ‘but…er’

·         Using tag questions to prompt a response

Most interaction begins with an opening sequence which signals to a listener that we want to talk. These opening sequences are carefully, yet often unconsciously, adapted to make them appropriate to the situation. Here are some examples:

·         “I'm Karen Marshall. Did you have a good journey?” = meeting a business contact

·         “Hiya. You ok?” = meeting a friend in the street

·         “Excuse me.” = approaching a stranger for information

Adjacency Pairs

·     Have each part of the pair spoken by a different person

·     Always have a link

·     Always involve a second utterance following on from the first (although it may not follow on directly – there could be a short interruption).

The ‘chains' of adjacency pairs can be broken up or interrupted. This might happen if, for example:

·      Someone comes into a room and joins in the conversation

·      The flow of the conversation is temporarily redirected for a few utterances, perhaps  so that clarification can be sought

·     These temporary interruptions are known as insertion sequences when someone from ‘outside' joins, and side sequences when, for example, there is a need to clarify something before the original thread of the conversation is resumed

How do participants maintain and change topic in a conversation?

·     The subjects of our conversations – what we talk about – are called topics. A topic is normally initiated by one person and pursued until that person, or someone else, wishes to end the conversation or move onto another topic.

·     When a change of topic takes place, it's known as a topic shift and the verbal cues to make the change are called topic shifters.

·    Control of topics can be a sign of conversational dominance – where one participant has more control over what is said than others.

Do the participants correct any repairs, and, if so, how do they go about this?

·     Repairs occur when there's a need to correct a mistake. Sometimes the speaker will ralise that s/he needs to make a correction, sometimes another participant will correct. Here's Tracey and Faye, both repairing a couple of Tracey's mistakes:

·         T: “I got this really nice top from Next (.) no not Next (.) from what you call it (.)? Wallis (.) it's just off Surrey Street”

·         F: “you mean Norfolk Street?”

·         T: “yeah (.) that's the one”

 

In what ways do the participants feedback to one another?

·         Give minimal responses like hum and uh huh

·         Utter words such as ‘really?', ‘right', ‘OK' etc. (also known as back-channelling)

·         Provide non-verbal responses like nodding

How do participants bring their conversation to a close?

·    When we're aware that we're coming towards the end of a conversation, we usually try to bring it to a close in a way that is socially acceptable and ‘polite'. To end too abruptly is usually a sign that something has gone wrong.

A linguist called H.P.Grice developed the idea that there are 4 maxims for successful conversation:

·         The maxim of quantity.
Say just the right amount for the situation.

·         The maxim of relevance.
What you say should be relevant to the topic being discussed

·         The maxim of manner.
You should speak in a clear, orderly way.

·         The maxim of quality.
What you say should be truthful.

In her work on ‘The Politeness Principle', Robin Lakoff (1970s) maintained that speakers usually try to follow three rules when talking to others. These rules were:

·         Don’t impose

·         Give options

·         Make your receiver feel good

Brown & Levinson (1980s) maintained that positive politeness is shown when we:

·     Show people that we like/admire/have sympathy with them and make jokes (that we know the person will like)

·     Avoid disagreements – e.g. by choosing ‘safe' topics to talk about, or by softening our own disagreements

·    Assert what we have in common and are in agreement

Brown & Levinson thought negative politeness is shown when we:

·      Are indirect to avoid intrusion

·      Use hedges or questions

·      Defer to someone by giving a superior form of address – e.g. ‘sir'

·      Are apologetic

·     Brown & Levinson's ideas were more complex in that they also suggested that different cultures place more emphasis on some of these forms of politeness than others.